This post specifically pertains to the butterfly effect at the classical and quantum level.
Butterfly effect is undoubtedly one of the most beautiful theories, but it also creates more chaos.
This post specifically pertains to Blackhole energy extraction(Penrose
superradiance).
As known, Black Holes are something which gulps almost everything(except
hypothetical space-like objects). This means Black holes comprise a lot of
energy in different forms. But, is any of that energy useful?. Fortunately, a
long time ago scientists hypothesised two methods(one by Misner in 1968 and
other by Penrose in 1971) which are theoretically possible to extract energy
from a black hole.
To start with, it is important to know what a black hole comprises.
This post specifically pertains to Lamphone technology.
These days privacy is far different from the dictionary meaning. In recent days, losing privacy primarily remembers hacking/compromising any device which contains important or potential information. Moving onto the next step, researchers develop a new method that can be used by the attackers to listen to our conversations just by staring at a light bulb in the room.
To start with, lamphone is a device developed by the researchers which uses small vibrations of the light bulb caused by the sound waves to retrieve audio produced in the room. Basic innards of regular microphones(as described below) are required to know about lamphone.
There is a three-step process which involves three components in a microphone, a device which converts sound waves into an audio signal, they are
Firstly, a diaphragm- which contains a thin piece of material through which sound waves (air pressure fluctuations) pass and create a mechanical motion to the diaphragm.
This post specifically pertains to the basic science of optical cloaking(paraxial)
Not always sci-fi movies heed science, but sometimes scientists heed sci-fi movies too. Well, this commotion is all about cloaking devices used in fictional movies like Harry Potter and Star Trek, which are now an absolute reality. Some of the basic principles of optics are summed up to make things invisible and cloaking possible.
To start from scratch, cloaking devices are something which makes things partially or fully undetected to the electromagnetic spectrum, which entails the visible spectrum. Basic principles of cloaking involve analysis of the well-known Ray transfer matrix/ABCD matrix. By the name itself, it means that these contain matrices (mostly 2×2) which transform the initial/incident rays to the final or emerging rays from an optical device/system as depicted in the picture.
which is not the one required or satisfied by the matrix for the perfect cloaking device.
Moving onto two lenses the ABCD matrix will be
This also does not satisfy the cloaking matrix
Next with three lenses, the ABCD matrix will be
By condition, setting C as zero, we get the answer which also does not suffice the required condition.
From this and further calculation on increasing number of lenses, it can be concluded that at least four lenses must be there to make cloaking possible.
On summarising, this picture depicts the whole thing discussed intuitively.
REFERENCES/CITATIONS
Choi, Joseph & Howell, John. (2014). Paraxial Ray Optics Cloaking. Optics Express. 22. 10.1364/OE.22.029465.
M. McCall, “Transformation optics and cloaking,” Contemp. Phys. 54, 273–286 (2013).
B. Zhang, “Electrodynamics of transformation-based invisibility cloaking,” Light. Sci. Appl. 1, e32 (2012).
T. Ergin, N. Stenger, P. Brenner, J. B. Pendry, and M. Wegener, “Three-dimensional invisibility cloak at optical
wavelengths,” Science 328, 337–339 (2010).
T. R. Zhai, X. B. Ren, R. K. Zhao, J. Zhou, and D. H. Liu, “An effective broadband optical ’cloak’ without
metamaterials,” Laser Phys. Lett. 10, 066002 (2013).
J. S. Li and J. B. Pendry, “Hiding under the carpet: A new strategy for cloaking,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 101, 203901
(2008).
This post specifically pertains to the known science of the Wuhan virus/coronavirus.
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| Credit: CDC/ Alissa Eckert, MS; Dan Higgins, MAM. |
COVID-19(Coronavirus disease -2019), needs no introduction (obviously..!), corona viruses is a group of viruses that causes different types of diseases in different kinds of mammals and birds(In Humans it causes respiratory tract infections, and in cows and pigs it causes diarrhoea and so forth). COVID-19 is named by WHO chief in February-2020 after the disease-causing virus, SARS-CoV-2(severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2, priorly known as 2019 novel coronavirus(2019 nCoV)). SARS-CoV-2 has a close genetic similarity to that of bats coronaviruses, and hence it is hypothesised that it may originate and spread from bats.
Under a cryo-electron microscope, this contagious virus looks like
Representative image.Credit:Reuters photo
Using the psyche of scientists and advanced computer simulations made the above to look like
This virus spreads through the aerosolised particles expelled while coughing and sneezing from an infected person to others
Inside the coronavirion, there is a nucleocapsid protein which encloses required RNA to cause a pandemic. The complete RNA sequence is found by the Chinese scientists and uploaded to a free public database (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/sars-cov-2-seqs/) such that it would be easy to find a vaccine rather spending time on finding its RNA sequence. SARS-CoV-19 is completely RNA type virus.RNA viruses infect cells by injecting RNA into the cytoplasm of the host cells to transcribe and replicate viral proteins. The genome size of coronaviruses ranges from approximately 27 to 34 kilobases, the largest among known RNA viruses.
And next comes the lipid membrane which contains two layers of neatly packed lipids with the hydrophobic ends towards the middle of the membrane and hydrophilic ends towards the edges of the membrane.
At least this membrane is helping us to protect from the CoVID-19 disease(how and why will be explained in a while)
Attached to this lipid membrane there are three types of glycoproteins(which contains C-terminal and N-terminal) namely envelope protein, membrane protein and the most important one, The spike protein is the one which binds to certain unknown specific surface receptors in the plasma membrane of host cell via N-terminus and without this protein the virion losses its contour and will not be able to enter the host cells.
The membrane protein gets glycosylated(the enzymatic process that attaches glycans to proteins) in the Golgi apparatus. This protein helps the virion to regenerate in the host cell by the complex formation in the ERGIC(endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi apparatus intermediate compartment).
The envelope protein is the smallest of three, comprising 75-110 amino acids. Also, this protein plays a critical role in morphogenesis and assembly of the virions in the host cell
CoVID-19 COURSE
Now getting on to the trajectory of the virus
Firstly, it immigrates into the host mainly through the nose (it also enters through eyes and mouth), it attaches to a particular receptor on the surface of a body's cell, usually starting with cells in the mucus membranes in nose and throat, causing mild cough and cold, and to cells in the lungs (mucus and hair like batons called cilia) with the help of the spike protein by endocytosis process which is dependent on pH. On entering the cytoplasm of the cells, it disassembles its structure and transfers it's RNA genome(26-32kb comprising 7 genes) containing instructions, to replicate the virions, is carried from DNA to body's cells. This eventually leads to the production of millions of virions which hijack the cells function and ultimately causing cell death, causing viral pneumonia(inflammation of lungs). In severe cases the virus also leaks into the blood vessels, resulting in kidney failure. In utmost severe situation the virus spreads into the whole body through the blood vessels and ultimately leads to death.
As stated above, the virus itself contains a lipid membrane that helps us to kill the virus( upside also have a downside). This can be done by soap action on the virus. When soap(containing hydrophobic and hydrophilic end) is applied on the surface containing virions, soap gets near to the lipid membrane as it also contains two layers of lipids with the hydrophobic and hydrophilic end, the hydrophobic end of the soap gets attached to hydrophobic end of lipid in the membrane and vice Versa. Low amount of soap just gets attached to the membrane, but if a bit high amount of soap is applied it forms aggregates, and by the action of water the aggregates get removed from the surface and hence the virion losses its structure and will not be able to penetrate the cell, and so it's action will be terminated in the step one itself
IMMUNARY RESPONSE
When our immune system recognises that there’s a new virus in your body, it starts using signalling molecules called cytokines to start calling in reinforcements to the site of infection. Many of those cytokines end up causing fever in order to kill the virus
VACCINE DEVELOPMENT
Generally, vaccine development requires an actual virus sample which is inactivated by adding special chemicals before it's put into a vaccine. When the inactivated or weakened virus is injected into the body immune system recognises it as a foreign invader or an antigen. Vaccines use antigens to prime the body to protect against a particular virus. But vaccines developed with rapid response platforms work differently. Rather directly injecting the antigens into the bodies, these type of vaccines typically send instructions to the cell in the body. It gets the cells to produce antigen proteins that are specific to the virus is designed to defeat. These instructions are in the form of RNA or DNA. This process cuts down on development time, unlike normal vaccines, because they don't have to grow the whole virus. Additionally, once scientists identify and create the instructions for one virus, they can tweak those instructions to make a vaccine for a similar virus.
Vaccines of other types are also under experimentation which have potential to contain this pandemic.
But that's the idea for another sci-hole story.
REFERENCES/CITATIONS:
Tok TT, Tatar G. Structures and Functions of Coronavirus Proteins: Molecular
Modeling of Viral Nucleoprotein. Int J Virol Infect Dis. 2017;2(1): 001-007.
Graham RL, Baric RS. Recombination, reservoirs, and the modular spike:
mechanisms of coronavirus cross-species transmission. J Virol. 2010; 84:
3134-3146. https://goo.gl/89BVoZ.
Bárcena M, Oostergetel GT, Bartelink W, Faas FG, Verkleij A, Rottier PJ,
et al. Cryo-electron tomography of mouse hepatitis virus: Insights into the
structure of the coronavirion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009; 106: 582-587.
https://goo.gl/6eTwmf
Blau DM, Holmes KV. Human coronavirus HCoV-229E enters suscept l
cells via the endocytic pathway. Adv Exp Med, Biol. 2001; 494: 193-8.
https://goo.gl/nJGLVx.
Chu VC, McElroy LJ, Ferguson AD, Bauman BE, Whittaker GR. I
infectious bronchitis virus enters cells via the endocytic pathway. Adv Exp
Med Biol. 2006; 581: 309-312. https://goo.gl/UNbb12.
Eifart P, Ludwig K, Bottcher C, de Haan CA, Rottier PJ, Korte T, et al. Rol f
endocytosis and low pH in murine hepatitis virus strain A59 cell entry. J Virol.
2007; 81: 10758-68. https://goo.gl/v2e5eH.
Wang H, Yang P, Liu K, Guo F, Zhang Y, Zhang G, et al. SARS coronavirus
entry into host cells through novel clathrin - and caveolae-independent
endocytic pathway. Cell Res. 2008; 18: 290-301. https://goo.gl/xemCsE.
Until now, a minimum of two independent calculation methods has received two values that are different by about 10% with a deviation that's statistically irreconcilable. The galaxy M106 accustomed measure the distances of more distant galaxies. The universe has been expanding since the massive Bang occurred 13.8 billion years ago – a proposition first made by the Belgian canon and physicist Georges Lemaître (1894-1966), and first demonstrated by Edwin Powell Hubble (1889-1953). The American astronomer discovered in 1929 that each galaxy is pulling removed from us which the foremost distant galaxies are moving the foremost quickly. This means that there was a time within the past when all the galaxies were located at the identical spot, a time that may only correspond to the massive Bang. This research gave rise to the Hubble-Lemaître law, including the constant (H0), which denotes the universe’s rate of expansion. The simplest H0 estimates currently laze 70 (km/s)/Mpc (meaning that the universe is expanding 70 kilometres a second more quickly every 3.26 million light-years). The matter is that there are two conflicting methods of calculation.
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| M106 and its anomalous arms used to measure the distance of distant galaxies, Composite of IR (red) and optical light (Credit: NASA, ESA, the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA), and R. Gendler (for the Hubble Heritage Team) |
The first is predicated on the cosmic microwave background: this can be the microwave radiation that comes at us from everywhere, emitted at the time the universe became cold enough for light finally to be ready to circulate freely (about 370,000 years after the massive Bang). Using the precise data supplied by the Planck space mission, and given the actual fact that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic, a worth of 67.4 is obtained for H0 using Einstein’s theory of relativity to run through the scenario. The second calculation method is predicated on the supernovae, which appear sporadically in distant galaxies. These very bright events provide the observer with highly precise distances, an approach that has made it possible to see a worth for H0 of 74. These two values carried on becoming more precise for several years while remaining different from one another. It didn’t take much to spark a scientific controversy and even to arouse the exciting hope that we were perhaps handling a ‘new physics’.To narrow the gap, professor Lombriser entertained the thought that the universe isn't as homogeneous as claimed, a hypothesis which will seem obvious on relatively modest scales. There's little doubt that matter is distributed differently inside a galaxy than outside one. It's tougher, however, to imagine fluctuations within the average density of matter calculated on volumes thousands of times larger than a galaxy.
If we were in a very quite gigantic ‘bubble’, where the density of matter was significantly not up to the known density for the whole universe, it might have consequences on the distances of supernovae and, ultimately, on determining H0. All that might be needed would be for this “Hubble bubble” to be large enough to incorporate the galaxy that is a reference for measuring distances. By establishing a diameter of roughly 250 million light-years for this bubble, we are able to calculate the density of matter inside was 50% not up to for the remainder of the universe, and a replacement value would be obtained for the constant, which might then believe the one obtained using the cosmic microwave background.
AT A GLANCE (Solution to the discrepancy)
The earth, solar system, entire galaxy and therefore the few thousand galaxies closest to us move in a very vast “bubble” that's 250 million light-years in diameter, where the common density of matter is half as large as for the remainder of the universe. This can be the hypothesis to resolve a conundrum that has been splitting the scientific community for a decade: at what speed is that the universe expanding?
This is highly theoretical, and hence no much of experimentation is required to prove and also it's highly difficult to prove it experimentally with this tools and technology equipped in it.
Also, this calculation is predicated on some approximations, and hence there'll be some error, whether or not it's experimentally proved.
Also, no math is kept up here because it gets complicated and difficult for a layman to grasp.
Sci-hole, the word may be slightly contrasting from the typical vernacular. But it is an assortment of the words science and hole. A black hole, which is familiar to many, is something that swallows almost everything and will not entitle anything to have an exit. Sci-hole(science-hole) also implies roughly the same, but with a slight difference, it does mean that this is a forum where everyone gets gulped by the content in the forum and the way of explanation which generates curiosity and helps to explore science. This forum is made with an entirely different strategy. Firstly, it contains a 'FASCINATING' section which comprises posts encompassing topics of science that seems precisely intriguing. Secondly, the section 'ENGINEERED WITH SCIENCE' have posts containing the applications of science. Thirdly, 'RESEARCH PAPERS' comprises of explanation of some research articles and also a comment by the author on the relevant article or journal. Last but not least 'ABSTRACTIONS' is the section containing some ideas that may be solution to any problem in science or may be some scientific idea that the author hypothesize and also proves(on his/her convenience). This forum, unlike many, is interactive, and feedback is highly appreciated. It is also deemed to collaborate with us and take part in content writing and developing it by contacting the author.
